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The uvea is a vascular stratum that includes the iris, ciliary body and choroid. Uveitis is defined as inflammation of a part of the uvea or its entirety, but it is also used to describe inflammatory processes of any part of the eye, such as the vitreous or peripheral retina. The clinical taxonomy of uveitis […]

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a chronic deterioration and dysfunction of the outer retinal tissue and Bruch’s membrane (BrM). It is the leading cause of vision loss in people older than 60 years and is estimated to affect 288 million people by 2040 with 39 million new cases by 2050.1,2 AMD has the highest economic burden […]

Thyroid eye disease (TED) is an autoimmune condition that can lead to significant visual impairment, facial disfigurement and decreased quality of life. It affects 16 out of every 100,000 females and 2.9 out of every 100,000 males. Risk factors for TED include age, female gender, smoking and radioactive iodine therapy.1 TED typically begins with a progressive […]

Retinal pharmacotherapy encompasses various drug delivery routes that offer potential avenues for effective treatment (Figure 1). Among these, intravitreal injections have emerged as the predominant method employed in clinical practice.1 They have established themselves as the primary approach for administering anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) therapy, serving as the frontline treatment for neovascular age-related macular degeneration […]

Mydriasis physiology Mydriasis refers to physiologic or pharmacologic pupillary dilation. Physiologic pupillary dilation occurs naturally as a response to low light and viewing objects in the distance. This process is mediated by both the iris sphincter and the iris dilator muscles, the latter of which contracts in response to sympathetic stimulation and relaxes in response to […]

Dry eye disease (DED) is a multifactorial condition of the ocular surface and tears. It is frequently encountered in ocular practices, comprising nearly 33% of visits in the USA, and with an estimated global prevalence ranging between 5% and 50%.1,2 The chronic symptoms and discomfort reported by patients with DED directly impact their quality of life […]

The treatment options for neurotrophic keratitis (NK) are ever-evolving as the pathogenesis of this increasingly prevalent degenerative keratopathy is further elucidated. Currently available therapeutics can be divided into medical, procedural and surgical interventions that directly address the effects of corneal denervation as well as the comorbid conditions causing superimposed infection and inflammation in the affected […]